Masonry | American Journal of Archaeology

Marble Wall Revetment in Roman Times: Materials and Techniques

website — Tue, 16 Dec 2025 22:12:34 +0000

Making marble wall revetment in Roman times required real know-how. Surprisingly, ancient sources are silent on the installation methods of revetment. The archaeological literature is also sparse, but there are two schools of thought: one assumes that a plaster layer was applied before the marble slabs, while the other assumes that mortar was poured behind the slabs held in place by metal clamps. All point out the presence of shims on the plaster, although there has been no consensus as to their function. The recent discovery of an organic material (based on pitch and beeswax) helps us understand how these shims were laid: they were placed behind the slabs, before the slabs were installed, to hold them in place when the mortar set. Above all, it provides a clear understanding of how the Romans went about installing their marble revetment: choosing one or other of the two supposed variant methods as required. This synthesis also gives us the opportunity to present a typology of metal clamps and to discuss several adaptations of the technique, such as the practice at Pompeii of preparing the wall surface with a toothed chisel.

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Marble Distribution Patterns in the Early Byzantine Southwestern Levant: Quantitative and Spatial Approaches

website — Fri, 12 Sep 2025 20:27:15 +0000

This study applies a quantitative and spatial approach to Early Byzantine marble finds from the southwestern Levant, integrating data into a theoretical model of overland transport costs. While the largest proportion of marble finds is concentrated along the Mediterranean coast near seaports, where transport costs were lower, the most significant variation in different categories of finds occurs farther inland. This unexpected variation suggests that factors beyond transport costs, such as the cultural and religious significance of sites, also influenced the distribution of marble objects. Sites with religious importance, for example, appear to have played a key role in this pattern, highlighting the complex interplay between economic and cultural forces in the Early Byzantine period. This study is the first comprehensive quantitative and spatial analysis of marble finds from the Early Byzantine period, the results of which show the patterns of distribution of imported marbles and reveal factors impacting this trade.

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A Mason’s Mark from the Stelida Peak Sanctuary, Naxos

website — Mon, 01 Jul 2024 04:00:00 +0000

This archaeological note reports on an architectural block from the peak sanctuary at Stelida on Naxos that is inscribed with a mason’s mark, the first such example from the island and one of only a handful outside of Crete and Akrotiri on Thera. The context of recovery immediately to the south of the sanctuary leads us to suggest that it originally formed part of the building’s back wall, the sign facing Thera, and Crete beyond—signaling a connection to and possibly protection from these important political loci. An alternative hypothesis sees the block as an altar. The design of the mason’s mark, a simple cross, is well attested at Knossos and several other sites on Minoan Crete, plus at Akrotiri on Thera, and at Mycenae in the Argolid. It is argued that this mason’s mark provides further evidence for Knossian politico-religious influence at Stelida.

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The First Koinon Temple of Roman Sardis: A Sanctuary from the First Century Through Late Antiquity

website — Mon, 01 Jul 2024 04:00:00 +0000

An artificial terrace in the center of the city of Sardis in western Asia Minor formed a focus of urban life from the Early Imperial period until the early Byzantine era. Following the earthquake of 17 CE, the terrace became a major sanctuary of the imperial cult belonging to the koinon of Asia. The lavishly ornamented octastyle temple and broad range of honorific monuments attest the importance of the sanctuary for the first three centuries CE. In the fourth century, the temple was largely demolished, and the sanctuary plaza converted to elite housing. This region was later enclosed by an impressive fortification wall built almost entirely out of spolia from the temple and sanctuary. The houses were destroyed by one or more earthquakes in the early seventh century, and while most of the area was apparently abandoned, traces of occupation cast light on this little-known period of Sardis’ history.

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A Recently Discovered Spring Source of the Aqua Traiana at Vicarello, Lazio

website — Thu, 01 Oct 2020 19:21:15 +0000

We report on an important spring source among the headwaters of the Aqua Traiana, the aqueduct introduced by the emperor Trajan to Rome in 109 CE. Located at Vicarello, adjacent to the celebrated thermal bathing complex of Aquae Apollinares, the vaulted gallery and its various intake and offtake branches are preserved in a restoration of the 17th century for use in the Acqua Paola. The question of when precisely this sector of the aqueduct was begun gains special relevance when one considers that Domitian built a large villa in the immediate vicinity and seems to have exerted his personal influence over the development of the bathing complex, too. We argue that Vicarello may have been the birthplace of the Aqua Traiana and that the collection of water there initially was confined to the villa, the nearby bath complex, and within the complex, a monumental nymphaeum. As more springs in the region became available, Domitian may have laid plans for what would become the Baths of Trajan in Rome. We trace the hypothetical stages through which his vision for a small local aqueduct expanded into a grand urban project, eventually to be appropriated and largely implemented by Trajan.

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The Functions of Masons’ Marks in the Bronze Age Palace at Malia (Crete)

website — Sun, 01 Jul 2018 04:00:00 +0000

The function of a large number of distinctive signs, usually called masons’ marks, carved on cut-stone blocks found in Minoan or Bronze Age buildings on the island of Crete remains a debated topic. Interpretations have varied from a simple practical use, aiding the builders in positioning the blocks, to a magical or religious function. In view of the constantly expanding corpus, this article considers the use of the marks visible in the walls of the Neopalatial palace at Malia (ca. 1700–1450 B.C.E.). Topics explored include the characteristics of the marks and the blocks on which they are carved, the phases of the construction process during which the carving occurred, the proportion of marked blocks in the building, and the distribution of the marks in relation to the organization of the building project. A case is made for the largely secular function of the marks that reflects different tasks during the construction project. They are most likely identifiers for the masons involved in quarrying the blocks and the builders in charge of the construction and final trimming of some of the best executed walls of the palace.

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Pompeii Forum Project: Excavation and Urbanistic Reappraisals of the Sanctuary of Apollo, Basilica, and Via della Fortuna Neighborhood

aja — Wed, 14 Jun 2017 15:24:29 +0000

Recent fieldwork and study by the Pompeii Forum Project allows us to expand and refine our understanding of the urbanistic development in the area of the Pompeii Forum, in the context of our previous interpretation of the overall state of Pompeii Forum studies (AJA 117 [2013] 461–92). In 2001, we conducted four excavations in the forum area, addressing questions raised by our excavations in 1997 (AJA 102 [1998] 739–56). Two trenches focused on the Sanctuary of Apollo. These rendered scant information and are treated here only briefly. More important, Archer Martin completed his analysis of all excavation pottery from our 1997 and 2001 seasons. This supports urbanistic reappraisal in key areas, including a substantial Augustan phase in the Sanctuary of Apollo. Our other two 2001 trenches were more successful. The one next to the Basilica clarified its construction practices, and the other, in the Via della Fortuna sidewalk across from the Temple of Fortuna Augusta, amplified our understanding of the impact of the construction of the temple on its immediate neighborhood. For both, we can better evaluate the urbanistic repercussions of inserting such large, public buildings into neighborhoods that had not previously made provision for such structures.

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The Columns of the Heraion at Olympia: Dörpfeld and Early Doric Architecture

aja — Mon, 19 Sep 2016 12:54:36 +0000

This article presents the first results of an ongoing investigation of the Temple of Hera at Olympia. Because it is traditionally believed that the temple was designed with wooden columns that were only later replaced by the stone columns now in situ, the Heraion has been widely cited as a key example for the tectonic theory of the origins of Doric architecture. However, a review of the archaeological evidence at Olympia and comparable sites, the testimony of Pausanias, and the findings from recent fieldwork demonstrate that the Heraion’s peristyle was very likely stone from the beginning. This challenge to the traditional understanding of the construction history of the Heraion has broad ramifications for our understanding of early Doric architecture.

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Stasis and Change in Roman Domestic Space: The Alae of Pompeii’s Regio VI

aja — Thu, 01 Jan 2015 13:31:46 +0000

This article investigates the space of the alae within the atrium houses of Pompeii. It reviews ancient and modern references and presents as a case study the alae of Pompeii’s Regio VI. Following several seasons of architectural survey in Pompeii and drawing on newly published archaeological evidence from this region, data concerning the distribution, number, placement, and architectural features of the alae are presented. Modifications to the alae, such as the addition of storage installations, staircases, and lofts, are documented, suggesting a possible shift to more independent spaces that served specific functions associated with household activities. On the one hand, such modifications emphasize the versatility of Roman domestic space and provide glimpses into the disruption of domestic and urban life in Pompeii in the decades that preceded the 79 C.E. eruption. On the other hand, they may also serve as potential indices of broader socioeconomic changes in the Late Republic and Early Empire.

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Making the Lion Gate Relief at Mycenae: Tool Marks and Foreign Influence

aja — Tue, 01 Jul 2014 13:47:17 +0000

This article considers the stoneworking techniques and implements that were employed in the production of the Lion Gate relief at Mycenae, as deduced from tool marks preserved on the sculpture. Examination of these traces has revealed previously undetected details while highlighting the indispensable roles of tubular drills and saws—especially a large pendulum saw and a smaller convex blade—in the manufacturing process. A new illustration of the relief depicts the location of all discernible tool marks and other minute features, most of which are hidden to the on-ground viewer. The analytical conclusions from this investigation substantially advance our understanding of the monument’s construction. The date of the relief and sequence of its production, as well as unexpected evidence for repair during the Bronze Age, are now clear. Moreover, evaluation of the extant tool marks suggests that the relief’s composition should be reconstructed as heraldic lions turning their now-missing heads backward. Finally, this article argues that specific stonecutting methods evident on the relief have strong parallels in central Anatolia, so the prospect of Hittite and Mycenaean interaction, particularly on a technological level, is appraised.

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